Extracranial and intracranial neuromodulatory techniques have been used in an increasing frequency to treat patients with refractory epilepsy who are not good candidates for resective surgery. Three randomized clinical trials showed intracranial neuromodulation to be efficacious in patients with refractory epilepsy; one reported on anterior nucleus of the thalamus stimulation [1], one reported on the results of responsive neuromodulation [2], and a third one reported on the efficacy of hippocampal deep brain stimulation (DBS) [3].
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